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This lengthy post is going to tell you a kind of experimental method to get Te-form of Japanese verbs.
We learned how to convert a verb from Masu-form to Te-form two days ago. To put it simply, the method is as follows:
Step1. Determine whether the verb is Group2 or Group1
Step2. In the case of Group1, check the letter just before “masu”
Step3. Apply “I/Chi/Ri=>tte, Bi/Mi/Ni=>nde, Ki=>ite, Gi=>ide, Shi=>shite”
If you apply this method, the only exception* happens for the verb “Iku/Ikimasu”, which basically means “go” in English.
How is “Iku/Ikimasu” exceptional? Let us examine;
Step1. Determine whether the verb is Group2 or Group1
This determination uses “Nai-form”. The Nai-form of “Iku/Ikimasu” is “Ikanai”.
– If the vowel before “nai” is “i” or “e”, the verb is a Group2 verb.
– If the vowel before “nai” is “a”, the verb is a Group1 verb.
Nai-form “Ik<a>nai” tells you that “Iku/Ikimasu” is a Group1 verb.
Step2. In the case of Group1, check the letter just before “masu”
Masu-form is “I<ki>masu”. Therefore, the letter “ki” is important to know what the Te-form of “Iku/Ikimasu”. Note that “ki” is two letters in alphabet, but “ki” is one letter “き” in Japanese.
Step3. Apply “I/Chi/Ri=>tte, Bi/Mi/Ni=>nde, Ki=>ite, Gi=>ide, Shi=>shite”
Since the letter just before “masu” is “ki”, Te-form of “Iku/Ikimasu” might be as below, by replacing “ki” by “ite”;
Ikimasu (in Masu-form ) + ite => Iki + ite (“ite” is substituted into “ki”) => Iite
BUT, Te-form “Iite” for “Iku/Ikimasu” is wrong. It must be “Itte”. Therefore, Itte as Te-form of “Iku/Ikimasu” is the exception, even though “Iku/Ikimasu” is a Group1 verb.
How do you feel about the method from Step1 through Step3 above? Probably Step1 is incomprehensible for most of Japanese learners. Why Step1 is necessary? Why Nai-form is used for determination? What is the meaning of focusing on the vowels in front of “nai”? Learners neither understand nor master the method in most cases.
So, from here, an experimental kind of things starts. As a method to get Te-form from Masu-form, how about omitting the Step1. If you did Step1, and then Step2 and Step3, the only exception is “Iku/Ikimasu”*. It is expected, if you skip Step1 and start from Step2, exceptions may increase. The number of exceptions is acceptable? Let us think about it; If you skip the Step1, the method will be as the followings;
If the letter before “masu” of Masu-form is one of { i, chi, ri, bi, mi, ni, ki, gi, or shi }, apply;
i/chi/ri=>tte, bi/mi/ni=>nde, ki=>ite, gi=>ide, shi=>shite, and Itte for Ikimasu
The followings are exceptions that you cannot obtain the right Te-form from this method;
[ i =>tte ]
– Kuimasu (悔います) i=> Kutte is Wrong, Kuite is Right because Kuiru/Kuimasu is Group2.
[ chi =>tte ]
– Kuchimasu (朽ちます) chi=> Kutte is Wrong, Kuchite is Right because Kuchiru/Kuchimasu is Group2
– Michiru (満ちます) chi=> Mitte is Wrong, Michite is Right because Michiru/Michimasu is Group2.
[ ri => tte ]
– Karimasu (借ります) ri=> Katte is Wrong, Karite is Right because Kariru/Karimasu is Group2.
– Korimasu (懲ります) ri=> Kotte is Wrong, Korite is Right because Koriru/Korimasu is Group2. Be careful for Koru(凝る/凝ります) whose te-form is Kotte,
[ bi => nde ]
– Abimasu (浴びます) bi=> Ande is Wrong, Abite is Right because Abiru/Abimasu is Group2.
– Obimasu (帯びます) bi=> Onde is Wrong, Obite is Right because Obiru/Obimasu is Group2.
– Kobimasu (媚びます) bi=> Konde is Wrong, Kobite is Right because Kobiru/Kobimasu is Group2.
– Sabimasu (錆びます) bi=> Sande is Wrong, Sabite is Right because Sabiru/Sabimasu is Group2.
– Nobimasu (伸びます／延びます) bi=> Nonde is Wrong, Nobite is Right because Nobiru/Nobimasu is Group2.
– Wabimasu (詫びます) bi=> Wande is Wrong, Wabite is Right because Wabiru/Wabimasu is Group2.
[ mi => nde ]
– Shimimasu (染みます) mi=> Shinde is Wrong, Shimite is Right because Shimiru/Shimimasu is Group2.
[ ni => nde ]
– Nimasu (煮ます) ni=> Nde is Wrong, Nite is Right because Niru/Nimasu is Group2. Note that Niru(似る)/Nimasu(似ます) also takes “Nite” for Te-form.
[ ki => ite ]
– Akimasu (飽きます) ki=> Aite is Wrong, Akite is Right because Akiru/Akimasu is Group2. Be careful for Aku/Akimasu(開く/開きます)，because its Te-form is “Aite”
– Ikimasu (生きます) ki=> Iite is Wrong, Ikite is Right because Ikiru/Ikimasu is Group2. Be careful that Te-form of Iku/Ikimasu(行く/行きます) is “Itte”
– Okimasu (起きます) ki=> Oite is Wrong, Okite is Right because Okiru/Okimasu is Group2. Be careful for Oku/Okimasu(置く/置きます), because its Te-form is “Oite”.
[ gi => ide ]
– Sugimasu (過ぎます) gi=> Suide is Wrong, Sugite is Right because Sugiru/Sugimasu is Group2.
These are what I found for exceptions when omitting the Step1 to convert a verb from Masu-form to Te-form. I guess exceptions are not limited to the above, there should be more. Do you think it is okay to treat them as exceptions? Is the number acceptable? Probably not.
Therefore, if we discuss the method to get Te-form of a verb, Step1 is necessary. The step1 is to distinguish Group1 verbs and Group2 verbs. Then, the next question is whether or not that All the Japanese language schools really teach the Step1 when they introduce “i/chi/ri=>tte, bi/mi/ni=>nde, ki=>ite, gi=>ide, shi=>shite, and Itte for Ikimasu”. I am not sure, or, I don’t think so. I think there are two ways to learn how to make Te-forms of Japanese verbs.
– 1: Knowing the Step1 through 3 first, and then applying these to get Te-forms.
– 2: Make you exposed a lot of Japanese, and you remember Te-form of each verb.
Perhaps 1 is a kind of deductive way, and 2 is inductive way. In the realm of second language learning, deductive or inductive things are always an important issue. We have looked through the steps to get Te-form, and now know that those steps are complicated and cumbersome. So, when it comes to get Te-form, the inductive way would be better for most of Japanese learners. But just in case, some learner likes the elaborate method of “ichiri=>tte, bimini=>nde, ——”. I hope this long post may be helpful for someone.
* “Iku/Ikimasu” is not the only exception actually. For example, the Te-form of “Tou/Toimasu(問う/問います)” which is a Group1 verb is not “totte” but “toute”. But this is unnecessary knowledge for beginner’s level.
If I took pictures today, it would have been more beautiful because the sky was clear today. But I had been working on my field.
Yesterday, Te-form of verbs was introduced. A verb in Te-form can be followed by another conjugating word (often a verb). Actually, “Masu-form without masu” can also be followed by another conjugating word. But anyway, it is important to know that there are two patterns of conjugation in Japanese; one is for being placed in front of a noun, the other is for being placed in front of another conjugating word. Te-form is the latter.
And have you found in yesterday’s post that there were groupings for verbs, which were called “Group1”, “Group2”, and “Group3”? Their definitions are as below;
Suppose there is one Japanese verb, and you want to know what group the verb is. Make “Nai-form” of that verb. And check the vowel just in front of “nai”.
– The vowel in front of “nai” is “a”, then the verb is a Group1 verb.
– The vowel in front of “nai” is “i” or “e”, then the verb is a Group2 verb.
– Verbs in Group3 are irregular verbs. They are Kuru/Kimasu and Suru/Shimasu.
Let us examine the verbs that appeared yesterday’s post as to these groupings;
– Imasu (in Masu-form) => Inai (in Nai-form); The vowel in front of “nai” is “i” => Group2
– Nemasu => Nenai; The vowel in front of “nai” is “e” => Group2
– Kimasu => Group3
– Shimasu => Group3
– Tsukaimasu => Tsukawanai; The vowel in front of “nai” is “a” => Group1
– Kakimasu => Kakanai; “a”+ “nai” => Group1
– Ikimasu => Ikanai; “a”+ “nai” => Group1
– Isogimasu => Isoganai; “a”+ “nai” => Group1
– Hanashimasu => Hanasanai; “a”+ “nai” => Group1
– Machimasu => Matanai; “a”+ “nai” => Group1
– Tobimasu => Tobanai; “a”+ “nai” => Group1
– Yomimasu => Yomanai; “a”+ “nai” => Group1
– Tsukurimasu => Tsukuranai; “a”+ “nai” => Group1
Once you have got to know which group the verb is, you can convert the verb from Masu-form to Te-form through the following procedure;
< Te-forms of Group2 and Group3 Verbs >
[Masu-form without masu] + te
examples — [Masu-form], [Masu-form without masu] + te, and Te-Form
– Imasu, I+te, Ite
– Nemasu, Ne+te, Nete
– Kimasu, Ki+te, Kite
– Shimasu, Shi+te, Shite
< Te-forms of Group1 Verbs >
SPECIAL ONE: Ikimasu => Itte
OTHER THAN Ikimasu
Check the letter just before “masu”
– i+masu/chi+masu/ri+masu => tte
— imasu => tte
example : Tsukaimasu => Tsuka+imasu => Tsukatte
— chimasu => tte
example : Machimasu => Ma+chimasu => Matte
— rimasu => tte
example : Tsukurimasu => Tsuku+rimasu=> Tsukutte
– bi+masu/mi+masu/ni+masu => nde
— bimasu => nde
example : Tobimasu => To+bimasu => Tonde
— mimasu => nde
example : Yomimasu => Yo+mimasu => Yonde
— nimasu => nde
example : Shinimasu => Shi+nimasu => Shinde
– ki+masu => ite
example : Kakimasu => Ka-kimasu => Kaite
– gi+masu => ide
example : Isogimasu => Iso-gimasu => Isoide
– shi+masu => shite
example : Hanashimasu => Hana+shimasu => Hanashite
TODAY’S SUMMARY
When you convert a verb from Masu-form to Te-form;
Group2 and Group3 verbs; Take place of “masu” by “te”
Group1 verbs;
– Ikimasu is an exception, its Te-form is “Itte”
– Check the letter before “masu”
— i/chi/ri => tte
— bi/mi/ni => nde
— ki => ite
— gi => ide
— shi => shite
It is essential for Japanese learners to be able to convert any Japanese verbs into Te-form.
Some of words in Japanese conjugate. The word groups that conjugate are Verb, I-adjective, Na-adjective, and Auxiliary verb. These conjugating words change at the end part of the word, while the head of the word does not change.
[Word to conjugate] = [Unchanging Part] + [Changing Part]
Take a look at verb “Kau” which means “buy” in English.
– Dictionary form = Kau
– Nai form = Kawanai
– Masu form = Kaimasu
You can see that the head of the word “ka” doesn’t change, and its end part changes to be “u”, “wanai”, and “imasu”.
There are many conjugation forms in addition to the three above. But here is a basic thing about conjugations of Japanese words. It is not only for verbs, but also for I-adjectives and Na-adjectives. You need to know two patterns; one is a conjugating word being placed in front of a noun, the other is a conjugating word being placed in front of another conjugating word.
1. [Conjugating word] + [Noun]
2. [Conjugating word] + [Another conjugating word]
For sake of simplicity, let us think of 2 as [Conjugating word] + [Another verb]. Using these basic concepts, we can classify properties of those conjugation forms.
– Dictionary form = Kau — can be placed in front of a Noun
– Nai form = Kawanai — can be placed in front of a Noun
– Masu form = Kaimasu — must be the ending of a sentence
– Te form = Katte — can be placed in front of another verb
So “Te-form” of a verb is a conjugation pattern that can be placed before another verb (or another conjugating word, too be exact).
The followings are examples of “Te-form” of verbs. Note that the list is written in the order of a Masu-form and a Te-form.
Group 2 Verbs
– Imasu — Ite
– Mimasu — Mite (Be careful, it’s not “Mitte”)
– Nemasu — Nete
– Okimasu — Okite (This is “Get up/wake up”. Not “put on”)
Group 3 Verbs
– Kimasu — Kite
– Shimasu — Shite
– Benkyoushimasu — Benkyoushite
Group 1 Verbs
– Tsukaimasu — Tsukatte
– Kakimasu — Kaite
– Ikimasu — Itte
– Isogimasu — Isoide
– Hanashimasu — Hanashite
– Machimasu — Matte
– Tobimasu — Tonde
– Yomimasu — Yonde
– Tsukurimasu — Tsukutte
Te-form of verbs is so important. More detailed explanation will be done soon.
This post was written with reference to the exercise A1 on Section 14 of “Minna no Nihongo (2nd Edition)” published by “3A Corporation”
We learned yesterday a sentence construction to describe purpose of movement. The example conversation was as follows;
A : Satou-san, Hokkaidou e Nani o Shi ni Ikimasuka. (Sato-san, for what to do are you going to Hokkaido?)
B : Watashi wa Hokkaidou e Kani o Tabe ni Ikimasu. (I am going to Hokkaido to eat Crab.)
Since Hokkaido is a famous place for tourism, there are many activities you can do. Let me show you more examples for B. As for question A, the same sentence as above A can be used.
<example for B>
1. Watashi wa Hokkaidou e Onsen ni Hairi ni Ikimasu. (I am going to Hokkaido to bathe in hot springs.) — { Hairimasu =>Hairi ni }
2. Watashi wa Hokkaidou e Sukii o Shi ni Ikimasu. (I am going to Hokkaido for skiing.) — { Shimasu =>Shi ni }
3. Watashi wa Hokkaidou e Mizuumi o Mi ni Ikimasu. (I am going to Hokkaido to see lakes.) — { Mimasu =>Mi ni }
The above sentences for purpose of movement use verbs in “Masu-form without masu”. In addition, there is simple version that uses “Action Noun”.
2. Watashi wa Hokkaidou e Sukii o Shi ni Ikimasu.
2’. Watashi wa Hokkaidou e Sukii ni Ikimasu.
Compare 2 and 2’. 2 uses the verb “Shimasu”, while 2’ doesn’t. The noun “Skii” has nuance of “doing ski”. If you use “Action Noun”, the construction for purpose of movement can be shortened as below;
4. [Subject] wa [Place] e [Action Noun] ni Ikimasu.
examples;
– Watashi wa Kombini e Kaimono ni Ikimasu. (I am going to a convenience store for shopping.) — Kaimono is an action noun
– Watashi wa Nihon e NihonRyouri no Benkyou ni Ikimasu. (I am going to Japan to study Japanese cuisine.) — Benkyou is an action noun.
This post was written with reference to the exercise A4 on Section 13 of “Minna no Nihongo (2nd Edition)” published by “3A Corporation”
We already know that verbs in Japanese conjugate. When we learned expressions of desire for action, verbs needed to be “Masu-form without Masu” in order to be followed by the auxiliary verb “-tai”. Today’s expression also uses “Masu-form without Masu” of a verb.
Suppose a winter vacation is coming. you are talking to your friend, Sato-san. The topic is what you are going to do in the vacation. Hearing that Sato-san is going to Hokkaido, you want to know what kind of activities she will take in Hokkaido. The conversation with Sato-san would be like as following;
A : Satou-san, Hokkaidou e Nani o Shi ni Ikimasuka. (Sato-san, for what to do are you going to Hokkaido?)
B : Watashi wa Hokkaidou e Kani o Tabe ni Ikimasu. (I am going to Hokkaido to eat Crab.)
Look at Sato-san’s comment (B), “Ikimasu” which means “am going” is in Masu-form. Can you find “Masu-form without Masu” in B? It’s “Tabe” whose masu-form is “Tabemasu”. Given that today’s title is “Purpose of Movement”, two verbs in the comment B, Ikimasu and Tabemasu, can be thought of as below:
– Purpose : Kani o Tabemasu
– Movement : Hokkaido e Ikimasu
Therefore, in the construction;
1. [Subject] wa [Place] e [V1-masu] ni [V2].
(V1-masu: Masu-form without masu)
[V1-masu] is the purpose of movement, which is in “Masu-form without masu”
[V2] is a verb to describe movement for which “Ikimasu” is often used.
Then, let us think about time sequence of V1 and V2 of above construction.
Sentence B is;
B : Watashi wa Hokkaidou e Kani o Tabe ni Ikimasu. (I am going to Hokkaido to eat Crab.)
At first, Sato-san goes to Hokkaido. Once she has arrived in Hokkaido, and then she eats crab. So, V2 happens first, and V1 happens after V2. The order in the sentence is V1 and then V2, but in the time sequence, the order is in reverse, V2 first, V1 second.
Not today, but we will soon learn the other construction that uses two verbs.
2. [Subject] wa [V1te], [V2].
In this construction, V1 becomes “Te-form”. And V1 happens first and V2 second. The order of V1 and V2 in the sentence is the same as the order of time that V1 and V2 happen. Many of Japanese learners like the construction 2 better than 1. If Sato-san’s comment B is changed to be 2;
B2 : Watashi wa Hokkaido e Itte, Kani o Tabemasu.
However, if the purpose of going to Hokkaido is to eat crab, the construction 1 is much better. The construction 1 should be learned well before the construction 2 is introduced to Japanese learners of beginner’s level.
This post was written with reference to the exercise A4 on Section 13 of “Minna no Nihongo (2nd Edition)” published by “3A Corporation”
As of April 1st, It was declared that Cherry flowers had started blooming in Niigata.
Yesterday, we learned the Japanese expression that is similar to “I want to do something” in English. Its construction is;
[Verb Clause]+tai desu.
And important thing is the form of a verb to be followed by the auxiliary verb “-tai” behind.
[verb]+ tai => [Verb in Masu-form without Masu]+tai
Then let us review yesterday’s three example conversations. In those three conversations, the questions are the same kind that is “[Name] wa Nani o shitai desuka.” But three answers are slightly different each other.
1. Watashi wa Sumaho o Kaitai desu. (I want to buy a smartphone.)
2. Watashi wa Tomodachi ni Aitai desu. (I want to see my friend.)
3. Watashi wa Amerika de Hatarakitai desu. (I want to work in U.S.)
You can see that different particles are used in 1, 2, and 3.
– Sumaho o Kaitai => “o” for the object of transitive verb “Kau (buy)”
– Tomodachi ni Aitai => “ni” for the reaching point of the action “Au (meet)”
– Amerika de Hatarakitai => “de” for the place of action “Hataraku (work)”
Whenever you use a verb, particles need to be chosen and used properly in accordance with the verb.
Move back onto the auxiliary verb “-tai”. “-tai” is a word to change (conjugate). And its changing pattern is the same as a certain kind of words group. What is it? What is the last letter of “-tai”? It is the letter “i”. In fact, the auxiliary verb “-tai” conjugates in the same way as I-adjective. Today, we are learning only present-positive and present-negative when “-tai” is used for a predicate. So, remember I-adjective predicates for present-positive and present negative;
– present-positive : Kyou wa Atsui desu. (Today, it is hot.)
– present-negative : Kyou wa Atsukunai desu. (Today, it is not hot.)
Likewise, a predicate using “-tai” becomes “-i desu.” for present-positive, and “-kunai desu.” for present-negative.
The following is examples of predicates using “-tai” for present-positive and present-negative;
(want to do / don’t want to do)
<look, watch, see> Mitai desu. / Mitakunai desu.
<eat> Tabetai desu. / Tabetakunai desu.
<come to this side> Kitai desu. / Kitakunai desu.
<do> Shitai desu. / Shitakunai desu.
<buy> Kaitai desu. / Kaitakunai desu.
<go to somewhere> Ikitai desu. / Ikitakunai desu.
<speak, talk> Hanashitai desu. / Hanashitakunai desu.
<get back, go home> Kaeritai desu. / Kaeritakunai desu.
This post was written with reference to the exercise A3 on Section 13 of “Minna no Nihongo (2nd Edition)” published by “3A Corporation”
Yesterday, we learned expressions of desire for possession. The expression uses the I-adjective “Hoshii” in the following construction;
1. Watashi wa [A] ga Hoshii desu.
This sentence is almost equivalent to the English one “I want [something]”. What we are going to learn today is like “I want [to do something]”. In the sentence “I want [to do something]”, “do” is a verb. And when you use this sentence in real situation, the original form of a verb is substituted to “do”. But in the case of Japanese, it is not so easy. You need to know the auxiliary verb “-tai” and how to change the form of a verb (conjugation) when a verb is placed in front of “-tai”.
Auxiliary verbs in Japanese are placed behind a verb. And auxiliary verbs change their forms. This “changing forms” of auxiliary verbs will be explained tomorrow. Anyway, “-tai” is one of them and has the function to add the meaning to a verb so as to express desire for action.
A verb must be in correct form when it is followed by an auxiliary verb. When you want to combine a verb and the auxiliary verb “-tai”, think of “masu form” first, and then take “masu” away from it.
[verb]+ tai => [Verb in Masu-form without Masu]+tai
Take a look at examples below. They are in order of “Verb in dictionary form”, “Verb in masu form” and “[Verb in masu form without Masu]+tai”
<look, watch, see> Miru, Mimasu, Mitai
<eat> Taberu, Tabemasu, Tabetai
<come to this side> Kuru, Kimasu, Kitai
<do> Suru, Shimasu, Shitai
<buy> Kau, Kaimasu, Kaitai
<go to somewhere> Iku, Ikimasu, Ikitai
<speak, talk> Hanasu, Hanashimasu, Hanashitai
<get back, go home> Kaeru, Kaerimasu, Kaeritai
Practice the three conversations below.
1. A : Satou-san wa Nani o Shitai desuka. (Sato-san, what do you want to do?)
B : Watashi wa Sumaho o Kaitai desu. (I want to buy a smartphone.)
2. A : Suzuki-san wa Nani o Shitai desuka. (Suzuki-san, what do you want to do?)
B : Watashi wa Tomodachi ni Aitai desu. (I want to see my friend.)
3. A : Takahashi-san wa Nani o Shitai desuka. (Takahashi-san, what do you want to do?)
B : Watashi wa Amerika de Hatarakitai desu. (I want to work in U.S.)
This post was written with reference to the exercise A2 on Section 13 of “Minna no Nihongo” published by “3A Corporation”
Take a look at an example of today’s construction;
example : Watashi wa Kanojo ga Hoshii desu. (I want a girlfriend.)
Note that “Kanojo” in Japanese usually means “a girlfriend”. Only when you learn grammar of a language, or translate sentences of foreign language, “Kanojo” means “she”. Anyway, the example is a “wa-ga construction”. If a teacher does not explain properly “wa-ga construction”, it could result in huge damage on Japanese learners because “wa-ga construction” may make a learner erroneously think that the particle “-ga” is for an object. The most important basic of Japanese is that the particle “-ga” is for a subject, while the particle “-o” for an object.
In an English sentence “I want a girlfriend”, “a girlfriend” is an object of the transitive verb “want”. But in the Japanese sentence “Watashi wa Kanojo ga Hoshii desu.” DO NOT think that “Kanojo(a girlfriend)” is an object, NOR think that “-ga” is the particle for the object.
Rather, think “Kanojo ga” is the subject of the predicate “Hoshii desu”. “Hoshii” is an I-adjective, and means someone wants something. Since “Kanojo” is what you want, it can be the subject of “Hoshii”. It may seem wrong from the context, because “Watashi (I)” is the subject of the sentence. So, I recommend you thinking as shown below;
– Watashi wa = the topic of the sentence
– Kanojo ga = the subject of “Hoshii”
– Hoshii desu = the predicate
It is fact that there are “wa-ga constructions” in Japanese. And sometimes they seem to be a “double subject sentence”. Be careful about “wa-ga construction” sentences, and not be confused with normal transitive verb sentences that use the particle “-o” for the object:
example of “wa-ga construction”;
– Watashi wa Kamera ga Hoshii desu. (I want a camera.)
example of “transitive verb sentence”;
– Watashi wa Kamera o Kaimasu. (I (am going to) buy a camera.)
Perhaps it is difficult to understand the lengthy explanation above. Then simply think that the I-adjective “Hoshii” usually becomes “wa-ga construction”. Practice and remember the following conversation;
A : Satou-san wa Nani ga Hoshii desuka. (Sato-san, what do you want?)
B : Watashi wa Atarashii Sumaho ga Hoshii desu. (I want a brand-new smartphone.)
This post was written with reference to the exercise A1 on Section 13 of “Minna no Nihongo” published by “3A Corporation”
Agony or Fun?! Second Language Learning 